First god in the world
Shiva
Major deity in Hinduism
This article is about the Hindu god. For other uses, see Shiva (Judaism) and Shiva (disambiguation).
"Nilkanth" and "Manjunatha" redirect here. For other uses, see Nilkanth (disambiguation) and Manjunatha (disambiguation).
Shiva (; Sanskrit: शिव, lit.&#;'The Auspicious One', IAST: Śiva[ɕɪʋɐ]), also known as Mahadeva (; Sanskrit: महादेव:, lit.&#;'The Great God', IAST: Mahādevaḥ, [mɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh)[16] or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism.[19] He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hinduism.
Shiva is known as The Destroyer within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity which also includes Brahma and Vishnu.
In the Shaivite tradition, Shiva is the Supreme Lord who creates, protects and transforms the universe.[16] In the goddess-oriented Shakta tradition, the Supreme Goddess (Devi) is regarded as the energy and creative power (Shakti) and the equal complementary partner of Shiva. Shiva is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism.
Shiva has many aspects, benevolent as well as fearsome.
In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscientYogi who lives an ascetic life on Kailasa as well as a householder with his wife Parvati and his two children, Ganesha and Kartikeya. In his fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons.
Kali hindu god: The theory and practice of Yoga, in different styles, has been a part of all major traditions of Hinduism, and Shiva has been the patron or spokesperson in numerous Hindu Yoga texts. Encyclopedia of World Religions. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Mahatma Gandhi: 12 Most Important Achievements.
Shiva is also known as Adiyogi (the first Yogi), regarded as the patron god of yoga, meditation and the arts.[25] The iconographical attributes of Shiva are the serpent king Vasuki around his neck, the adorning crescent moon, the holy riverGanga flowing from his matted hair, the third eye on his forehead (the eye that turns everything in front of it into ashes when opened), the trishula or trident as his weapon, and the damaru.
He is usually worshiped in the aniconic form of lingam.
Shiva has pre-Vedic roots, and the figure of Shiva evolved as an amalgamation of various older non-Vedic and Vedic deities, including the Rigvedicstorm godRudra who may also have non-Vedic origins, into a single major deity. Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely by Hindus in India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Indonesia (especially in Java and Bali).
Etymology and other names
Main article: Shiva Sahasranama
According to the Monier-Williams Sanskrit dictionary, the word "śiva" (Devanagari: शिव, also transliterated as shiva) means "auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly".[30] The root words of śiva in folk etymology are śī which means "in whom all things lie, pervasiveness" and va which means "embodiment of grace".[30]
The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda (c.&#;– BCE), as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, including Rudra.[32] The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one"; this adjectival usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic literature.[30] The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver".[30]
Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means "to injure" or "to kill",[35] interpreting the name to connote "one who can kill the forces of darkness".
The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect.
It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.[38]
Some authors associate the name with the Tamil wordśivappu meaning "red", noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun (śivan, "the Red one", in Tamil) and that Rudra is also called Babhru (brown, or red) in the Rigveda.[39][40] The Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", and "the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)".[41]
Shiva is known by many names such as Viswanatha (lord of the universe), Mahadeva, Mahandeo, Mahasu, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra (chief of the gods), Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha (lord of the three realms),[44][45][46] and Ghrneshwar (lord of compassion).
The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ("Great god"; mahā "Great" and deva "god"),[49]Maheśvara ("Great Lord"; mahā "great" and īśvara "lord"),[51] and Parameśvara ("Supreme Lord").[52]
Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity.[53] There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva.[54] The version appearing in Book 13 (Anuśāsanaparvan) of the Mahabharata provides one such list.[a] Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10, names) that are found in the Mahanyasa.
The Shri Rudram Chamakam, also known as the Śatarudriya, is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.[55][56]
Historical development and literature
See also: History of Shaivism
Assimilation of traditions
See also: Roots of Hinduism
The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over the Indian subcontinent, such as India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia, such as Bali, Indonesia.
Shiva has pre-Vedic tribal roots, having "his origins in primitive tribes, signs and symbols." The figure of Shiva as he is known today is an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure, due to the process of Sanskritization and the emergence of the Hindu synthesis in post-Vedic times. How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation.[61] According to Vijay Nath:
Vishnu and Siva [] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds.
The latter were either taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. [] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara."
An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding castes.
The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri.[64] Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself, in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam.[66] Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with Surya and Karttikeya.[67]
Myths about Shiva that were "roughly contemporary with early Christianity" existed that portrayed Shiva with many differences than how he is thought of now, and these mythical portrayals of Shiva were incorporated into later versions of him.
For instance, he and the other gods, from the highest gods to the least powerful gods, were thought of as somewhat human in nature, creating emotions they had limited control over and having the ability to get in touch with their inner natures through asceticism like humans.
Krishna hindu god However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state the Nandi bull, the Indian zebu , in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same. Shiva at Wikipedia's sister projects. Lord Shiva is worshipped through various rituals and practices, with devotees expressing their reverence in numerous ways. Skip to content.In that era, Shiva was widely viewed as both the god of lust and of asceticism. In one story, he was seduced by a prostitute sent by the other gods, who were jealous of Shiva's ascetic lifestyle he had lived for years.
Pre-Vedic elements
Prehistoric art
Prehistoric rock paintings dating to the Mesolithic from Bhimbetka rock shelters have been interpreted by some authors as depictions of Shiva.[b] However, Howard Morphy states that these prehistoric rock paintings of India, when seen in their context, are likely those of hunting party with animals, and that the figures in a group dance can be interpreted in many different ways.[72]
Indus Valley and the Pashupati seal
Main article: Pashupati seal
Of several Indus valley seals that show animals, one seal that has attracted attention shows a large central figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic,[note 2][73] seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position, surrounded by animals.
This figure was named by early excavators of Mohenjo-daro as Pashupati (Lord of Animals, Sanskritpaśupati),[74] an epithet of the later Hindu deities Shiva and John Marshall and others suggested that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, with three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined.
Semi-circular shapes on the head were interpreted as two horns. Scholars such as Gavin Flood, John Keay and Doris Meth Srinivasan have expressed doubts about this suggestion.
Gavin Flood states that it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure.
He characterizes these views as "speculative", but adds that it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull. John Keay writes that "he may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu-pati", but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra.
Writing in , Srinivasan interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man.
The interpretation of the seal continues to be disputed. McEvilley, for example, states that it is not possible to "account for this posture outside the yogic account".[81] Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to – BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bovine interpretation is likely more accurate.[82] Gregory L.
Possehl in , associated it with the water buffalo, and concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would "go too far".[83]
Proto-Indo-European elements
The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion,[84] and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian religion.
The similarities between the iconography and theologies of Shiva with Greek and European deities have led to proposals for an Indo-European link for Shiva,[86][87] or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures.[88][89] His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on the situation, are similar to those of the Greek god Dionysus,[90] as are their iconic associations with bull, snakes, anger, bravery, dancing and carefree life.[91][92] The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva "Indian Dionysus", or alternatively call Dionysus "god of the Orient".[91] Similarly, the use of phallic symbol[note 2] as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus[93]) and Roman deities, as was the idea of this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo-Aryans, states Roger Woodward.[86] Others contest such proposals, and suggest Shiva to have emerged from indigenous pre-Aryan tribal origins.
Rudra
Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra, and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures.
The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, a Rigvedic deity with fearsome powers, was the god of the roaring storm. He is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity. In RV , he is described as the "Father of the Rudras", a group of storm gods.[97][98]
Flood notes that Rudra is an ambiguous god, peripheral in the Vedic pantheon, possibly indicating non-Vedic origins.
Nevertheless, both Rudra and Shiva are akin to Wodan, the Germanic God of rage ("wütte") and the wild hunt.[page&#;needed][page&#;needed]
According to Sadasivan, during the development of the Hindu synthesis attributes of the Buddha were transferred by Brahmins to Shiva, who was also linked with Rudra.
The Rigveda has 3 out of 1, hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text. Hymn of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (Rudra), another that is kind and tranquil (Shiva).
The term Shiva also appears simply as an epithet, that means "kind, auspicious", one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities.
While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm-related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda, the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him. This healing, nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in the Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the gentle, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence.
The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle (vahana) of Rudra or other deities.
However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state the Nandi bull, the Indian zebu, in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same.
Agni
Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.[note 3] The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual transformation into Rudra-Shiva.[note 4] The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra."[] The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
The fire myth of Rudra-Śiva plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.
In the Śatarudrīya, some epithets of Rudra, such as Sasipañjara ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and Tivaṣīmati ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities.[note 5] Agni is said to be a bull,[] and Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi.
The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.[][] In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.[]
Indra
According to Wendy Doniger, the Saivite fertility myths and some of the phallic characteristics of Shiva are inherited from Indra.[] Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis.
Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, the transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra.
Shiva hindu god biography channel Brill, The two are at the bottom right of the bottom image. Eicher Goodearth and Madhya Pradesh Government. Archived from the original on 25 March(,[note 6] ,[][] and []) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.[][] In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.[]
Indra himself may have been adopted by the Vedic Aryans from the Bactria–Margiana Culture.
According to Anthony,
Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion.
His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.
The texts and artwork of Jainism show Indra as a dancer, although not identical generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras. For example, in the Jain caves at Ellora, extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of Tirthankaras in a manner similar to Shiva Nataraja.
The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva.
Development
A few texts such as Atharvashiras Upanishad mention Rudra, and assert all gods are Rudra, everyone and everything is Rudra, and Rudra is the principle found in all things, their highest goal, the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible.
The Kaivalya Upanishad similarly, states Paul Deussen – a German Indologist and professor of philosophy, describes the self-realized man as who "feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all", who feels identity of his and everyone's consciousness with Shiva (highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart.
Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (– BCE), according to Gavin Flood, presenting the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva.
Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and liberator of Selfs from the birth-rebirth cycle. The Svetasvatara Upanishad set the tone for early Shaivite thought, especially in chapter 3 verse 2 where Shiva is equated with Brahman: "Rudra is truly one; for the knowers of Brahman do not admit the existence of a second".[][] The period of BC to AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period.
Shiva hindu god biography channel youtube Ardhanarishvara represents the synthesis of masculine and feminine energies of the universe Purusha and Prakriti and illustrates how Shakti , the female principle of God, is inseparable from or the same as, according to some interpretations Shiva, the male principle of God, and vice versa. Archived from the original on 8 March Munshirm Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd. Shiva is known by many names such as Viswanatha lord of the universe , Mahadeva, Mahandeo, [ 42 ] Mahasu, [ 43 ] Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra chief of the gods , Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha lord of the three realms , [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] and Ghrneshwar lord of compassion.Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the Shvetashvatara Upanishad presents pluralism, pantheism, or henotheism, rather than being a text just on Shiva theism.[]
Self-realization and Shaiva Upanishads
He who sees himself in all beings,
And all beings in him,
attains the highest Brahman,
not by any other means.
—Kaivalya Upanishad 10
Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya (2nd-century BCE) and in the Mahabharata.[]
The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha-related artwork, but the presence of Shiva's trident and phallic symbolism[note 2] in this art suggests it was likely atics research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient Kushan Empire (30– CE) that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva.
The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by the start of the Kushan Empire.[]
The Shaiva Upanishads are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century.
These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality Brahman and the Atman (Self), and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva.
The Shaiva Puranas, particularly the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana, present the various aspects of Shiva, mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage (Tirtha) associated with him.
The Shiva-related Tantra literature, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as Sruti. Dualistic Shaiva Agamas which consider Self within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities (dualism, dvaita), are the foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta. Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality (monism, advaita), and that Shiva is the Self, the perfection and truth within each living being.[] In Shiva related sub-traditions, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism Agama texts and sixty-four monism Agama texts.[][]
Shiva-related literature developed extensively across India in the 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century, particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions.
Shaivism gained immense popularity in Tamilakam as early as the 7th century CE, with poets such as Appar and Sambandar composing rich poetry that is replete with present features associated with the deity, such as his tandava dance, the mulavam (dumru), the aspect of holding fire, and restraining the proud flow of the Ganga upon his braid.[] The monist Shiva literature posit absolute oneness, that is Shiva is within every man and woman, Shiva is within every living being, Shiva is present everywhere in the world including all non-living being, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and Shiva.
The various dualistic and monist Shiva-related ideas were welcomed in medieval southeast Asia, inspiring numerous Shiva-related temples, artwork and texts in Indonesia, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia, with syncretic integration of local pre-existing theologies.
Position within Hinduism
Shaivism
Main article: Shaivism
Shaivism is one of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being Vaishnavism, Shaktism and the Smarta Tradition.
Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is.[16] He is not only the creator in Shaivism, but he is also the creation that results from him, he is everything and everywhere.
Shiva hindu god biography channel 6 The interpretation of the seal continues to be disputed. It is believed that he meditates for years and years until he becomes fully happy. Despite his destructive aspect, Shiva is also regarded as benevolent and compassionate, bestowing blessings upon his devotees. Central Chinmaya Mission Trust.Shiva is the primal Self, the pure consciousness and Absolute Reality in the Shaiva traditions. Shiva is also part of 'Om' (ॐ) as a 'U' (उ).[]
The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva-Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti-related Tantra texts.
The Vedic-Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist (Advaita) and devotional traditions (Dvaita), such as Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta and Lingayatism. Shiva temples feature items such as linga, Shiva-Parvati iconography, bull Nandi within the premises, and relief artwork showing aspects of Shiva.[]
The Tantric Shiva ("शिव") tradition ignored the mythologies and Puranas related to Shiva, and depending on the sub-school developed a variety of practices.
For example, historical records suggest the tantric Kapalikas (literally, the 'skull-men') co-existed with and shared many Vajrayana Buddhist rituals, engaged in esoteric practices that revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls, begged with empty skulls, and sometimes used meat as a part of ritual.[] In contrast, the esoteric tradition within Kashmir Shaivism has featured the Krama and Trika sub-traditions.[] The Krama sub-tradition focussed on esoteric rituals around Shiva-Kali pair.[] The Trika sub-tradition developed a theology of triads involving Shiva, combined it with an ascetic lifestyle focusing on personal Shiva in the pursuit of monistic self-liberation.[][]
Vaishnavism
The Vaishnava (Vishnu-oriented) literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva.
Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme, the Vaishnava literature presents Vishnu as supreme. However, both traditions are pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu (along with Devi), their texts do not show exclusivism, and Vaishnava texts such as the Bhagavata Purana while praising Krishna as the Ultimate Reality, also present Shiva and Shakti as a personalized form an equivalent to the same Ultimate Reality.[][][] The texts of Shaivism tradition similarly praise Vishnu.
The Skanda Purana, for example, states:
Vishnu is no one but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu.
—&#;Skanda Purana, –21[]
Both traditions include legends about who is superior, about Shiva paying homage to Vishnu, and Vishnu paying homage to Shiva.
However, in texts and artwork of either tradition, the mutual salutes are symbolism for complementarity.[] The Mahabharata declares the unchanging Ultimate Reality (Brahman) to be identical to Shiva and to Vishnu,[] that Vishnu is the highest manifestation of Shiva, and Shiva is the highest manifestation of Vishnu.[]
Shaktism
The goddess-oriented Shakti tradition of Hinduism is based on the premise that the Supreme Principle and the Ultimate Reality called Brahman is female (Devi), but it treats the male as her equal and complementary partner.
This partner is Shiva.
The earliest evidence of the tradition of reverence for the feminine with Rudra-Shiva context, is found in the Hindu scripture Rigveda, in a hymn called the Devi Sukta.[]
The Devi Upanishad in its explanation of the theology of Shaktism, mentions and praises Shiva such as in its verse Shiva, along with Vishnu, is a revered god in the Devi Mahatmya, a text of Shaktism considered by the tradition to be as important as the Bhagavad Gita.[] The Ardhanarisvara concept co-mingles god Shiva and goddess Shakti by presenting an icon that is half-man and half woman, a representation and theme of union found in many Hindu texts and temples.[][]
Smarta tradition
Main article: Panchayatana puja
In the Smarta tradition of Hinduism, Shiva is a part of its Panchayatana puja.[] This practice consists of the use of icons or anicons of five deities considered equivalent,[] set in a quincunx pattern.[] Shiva is one of the five deities, others being Vishnu, Devi (such as Parvati), Surya and Ganesha or Skanda or any personal god of devotee's preference (Ishta Devata).
Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols (murti) are icons to help focus on and visualize aspects of Brahman, rather than distinct beings.
The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, recognize the Absolute symbolized by the icons,[] on the path to realizing the nondual identity of one's Atman (Self) and the Brahman.[] Popularized by Adi Shankara, many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the Gupta Empire period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from Ajmer) has been dated to belong to the Kushan Empire era (pre CE).
The Kushan period set includes Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Brahma and one deity whose identity is unclear.
Yoga
Shiva is considered the Great Yogi who is totally absorbed in himself – the transcendental reality. He is the Lord of Yogis, and the teacher of Yoga to sages. As Shiva Dakshinamurthi, states Stella Kramrisch, he is the supreme guru who "teaches in silence the oneness of one's innermost self (atman) with the ultimate reality (brahman)." Shiva is also an archetype for samhara (Sanskrit: संहार) or dissolution which includes transcendence of human misery by the dissolution of maya, which is why Shiva is associated with Yoga.[][]
The theory and practice of Yoga, in different styles, has been a part of all major traditions of Hinduism, and Shiva has been the patron or spokesperson in numerous Hindu Yoga texts.[][] These contain the philosophy and techniques for Yoga.
These ideas are estimated to be from or after the late centuries of the 1st millennium CE, and have survived as Yoga texts such as the Isvara Gita (literally, 'Shiva's song'), which Andrew Nicholson – a professor of Hinduism and Indian Intellectual History – states have had "a profound and lasting influence on the development of Hinduism".[]
Other famed Shiva-related texts influenced Hatha Yoga, integrated monistic (Advaita Vedanta) ideas with Yoga philosophy and inspired the theoretical development of Indian classical dance.
These include the Shiva Sutras, the Shiva Samhita, and those by the scholars of Kashmir Shaivism such as the 10th-century scholar Abhinavagupta.[][][] Abhinavagupta writes in his notes on the relevance of ideas related to Shiva and Yoga, by stating that "people, occupied as they are with their own affairs, normally do nothing for others", and Shiva and Yoga spirituality helps one look beyond, understand interconnectedness, and thus benefit both the individual and the world towards a more blissful state of existence.[]
Trimurti
Main article: